Introduction to Emotions

General definition of emotion and similar terms

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What are emotions?

Emotions are complex reaction patterns that have behavioral, psychological, and physiological outcomes [1]. There are different emotions, which have different reasons to appear and the way they are expressed can change.

Moods, emotions, and feelings

The terms mood, emotion, and feeling are similar to each other but have their differences. It is important to know them before learning more about emotions.

Emotion:

• Short-lived,

• Intense,

• Likely to have a definite and identifiable cause.

Feeling:

• A result of emotions,

• Differs on our perception of the situation (the reason for same emotion yielding different feelings for different people) [3].

Mood:

• Temporary and relatively stable,

• Mostly positive or negative [4],

• The reason may be clear or not,

• No specific reason is required [2].

Emotion theories

Paul Ekman defines 7 universal emotions. These emotions are joy, sadness, anger, disgust, fear, surprise, and contempt [5]. According to him every culture experience these emotions, but the way they are perceived and acted upon can differ. He also emphasizes the differences and similarities of facial expressions on emotional states, which is a very important topic for understanding emotions.

Plutchik adds trust, and anticipation to these, but subtracts contempt, as he considers it to be a complex emotion that stands between anger and disgust [6]. these emotions and proposes their intensities also make up for other emotions. Plutchik states that every emotion serves an evolutionary function and they are in strong relation to the body’s physiological responses [6]. There are three levels of intensity in Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions [7]. Every emotion has one higher intensity and one lower intensity of emotion (Acceptance - Trust - Admiration etc.). Besides that, there are combinations of emotions that create other emotions. Now let’s learn about these emotions.

Definitions of emotions

JOY

Joy typically arises from a connection or sensory pleasure. According to Paul Ekman, relief, peace, pride, excitement, and some other positive pleasurable states share the same ground with enjoyment [8]. It is the opposite of sadness. Higher intensity shows ecstasy, lower intensity shows serenity [9].

Function of joy

• Expressing enjoyment is an important role in signaling one is not a threat in a social context.

• Enjoyable emotions are accepted as motivators for us to do things that are good for us as a community (species).

• Some researchers agree that the pursuit of enjoyment is a primary motivation in our lives.

Common enjoyment triggers

• Enjoyment derived through one of the five senses (touch, taste, smell, sight, sound),

• Experiencing or witnessing something humorous or amusing,

• Personal achievement or witnessing the achievements of a loved one,

• Feeling connected (i.e., to yourself, other people, places, animals, nature, a cause, spirit, or religion) [8].

Expressions of joy

Smiling, a relaxed stance; an upbeat, pleasant way of speaking [10].

What does happiness do?

Joy is more complex when compared to other emotions [11]. The reason for feeling happiness is subjective to the person, but the effects are mostly the same. Joy is mostly a social experience that increases awareness and feelings of fulfillment. This changes the way we examine the world, things around us feel better, we lose track of time, and even gives us the feeling we can take on the world [12].

SADNESS

Sadness combines lots of unpleasant emotions or emotional states. Such as disappointment, helplessness, hopelessness, and anguish too. It is the opposite of joy. Higher intensity shows grief, lower intensity shows pensiveness [9].

Sadness can multi-exist with some other emotions such as anger, fear, and joy [8]. Examples of these are: being in a situation where you were treated unfairly and lost an opportunity, waiting for news at the hospital on a loved one’s condition, and thinking about the old days that cannot be relived, respectively. Another example of sadness co-existing is when you must move away and are anxious about making new friends, and building connections, here there are feelings of sadness for leaving a place you are used to and love; and anxiety when you have to face new challenges and maybe you are unsure how you will handle them [13].

Function of sadness

The function of sadness is solely dependent on social context. Sadness is a signal for help for people around us. This way when we are sad, people will know we could benefit from their approach to us. Although it is not always helpful to respond to another’s sadness, this depends on the relationship people have and the context [8].

Common sadness triggers

• Sickness or death of a loved one

• The loss of some aspect of identity (e.g., during times of transition at home, work, life stages)

• Being disappointed by an unexpected outcome (e.g., not receiving a raise at work when you expected it)

Sadness is more of a longer-lasting emotion, after some transformations, it is possible for sadness to turn into more intense periods and perhaps to depression [8].

Expressions of sadness

Crying, and laziness dampened mood, quietness, and withdrawal from other people [10].

How to deal with sadness?

The benefit of negative emotions is they can also give us a boost for making new or maybe better life choices. Generally, allowing you to live your emotions and not suppressing them can help you to increase your awareness. This awareness can help you when you face a similar problem in your life [13].

DISGUST

Disgust is the feeling of aversion towards something offensive, or the emotion we have when something we perceive is not correct. This can be from something we perceive purely from our physical senses, but it can also be induced by actions and even the ideas of people [8]. It is the opposite of trust. Higher intensity shows loathing, lower intensity shows boredom [9].

Function of disgust

The function of disgust is to be away from, eliminate, or evade things that contain risk, such as toxicity, or are offensive.

Common disgust triggers

• Expelled bodily products such as feces, vomit, urine, mucus, and blood,

• A person, animal, or thing one considers physically ugly,

• Perceived perversions or actions of other people (such as certain sexual inclinations, torture, or servitude).

Triggers of disgust can change depending on the social aspects. An action or something can be ‘disgusting’ in multiple cultures but the justification of the act can differ among cultures.

Expressions of disgust

Turning away from the object/person, vomiting, retching, wrinkling the nose, and curling the upper lip [10].

Disgust in caretaking

Some bodily functions are considered to be gross and disgusting while being observed, but these feelings can be suppressed when we are helping someone we are close to. This social benefit functions as the intimacy we feel for someone lowers the threshold for what is disgusting. This way we can go against the evolutionary idea we have, which is a ‘get away’, and aid the person in help. Helping a vomiting, or sick family member is an example; the feeling of disgust does not go away completely but is reduced. This mechanism can help people build stronger relationships [8].

ANGER

Anger occurs when we are treated unfairly, or we are incapable of achieving a goal. Because it is mostly together with violence, it can be considered the riskiest emotion. It is the opposite of fear. Higher intensity shows rage, lower intensity shows annoyance [9].

Anger is an emotion characterized by antagonism toward someone or something you feel has deliberately done you wrong. Anger can be a good thing. It can give you a way to express negative feelings, for example, or motivate you to find solutions to problems [14].

Function of anger

Anger from an evolutionary view shows the subject that we can get violent based on prior incidents. It also has a social aspect that helps the subject understand we are upset and expects them to feel guilty or make up for what they have done [15].

Common anger triggers

• Injustice

• Someone trying to hurt us or a loved one physically or psychologically

• Another person’s anger: one of the big problems with anger is that it is difficult not to reciprocate

But excessive anger can cause physical problems in the person such as increased blood pressure, also psychological problems can occur because it is difficult to think straight and acts impulsively in an angry state [14].

When anger can be controlled, it can be useful when it co-exists with compassion and is expressed with discernment. Although it is important to have control over anger or it can turn into a state of violence.

Expressions of anger

Frowning, glaring, taking a strong stance, yelling, sweating, turning red, hitting, kicking, and throwing [10].

Anger is a secondary emotion

Anger is considered to be among the 5 basic emotions, but it is also common that anger can cover the primary emotion one is actually feeling. When people try to avoid the feelings they are feeling, one way to do this is by shifting into an angry state. Although it is not a conscious decision, the angry state can make someone feel as if they are in more control of the situation compared to their state with the real primary emotion present.

It is important to have control of anger in this situation too because having some “sense of control” actually profits emotional well-being but when it transforms into an excessive desire for control, this ends up with negative consequences [16].

SURPRISE

The emotion of surprise happens when we encounter a sudden and unexpected incident. It is the most short-lived of emotions. There are debates on whether surprise is an emotion because it is not negative or positive, but as it feels like an emotion to the people and surprise can give the person feeling of good or bad [8].

Function of surprise

Surprise helps focus our attention on the salient incident and to observe what is happening and whether it is dangerous or not.

Common surprise triggers:

• Loud sounds (e.g., a balloon popping or a car backfiring),

• Unexpected movements (e.g., someone sneaking up on you or throwing a ball at you without warning),

• The universal triggers for surprise are sudden and unexpected occurrences [8].

Expressions of surprise

Widening the eyes, raising the eyebrows, opening the mouth, jumping back, yelling, screaming, and gasping [10].

Startle vs. surprise

Surprise is an emotion, and startle is a physical reflex.

Startle occurs and ends even faster and lasts shorter when compared to surprise. Prior knowledge of an incident of surprise can block the feeling of surprise, but that is not the case for a startle.

Responding to surprise

Surprise is not an emotion everybody likes to feel. Some people never want to be surprised, and some people seek it. It is regardless of the positive or negative aspects of it.

FEAR

Fear arises when there is a threat of harm, which is physical, emotional, or psychological. For fear to arise, the stimuli do not have to be real, it can also be induced from imagination. Fear can sometimes take place immediately following surprise and often oscillates with the experience of anger [8]. Ekman states anger can oscillate with fear; according to Plutchik, they are opposites and are impossible to co-exist. Higher intensity of fear shows terror, and lower intensity shows apprehension [9].

The universal trigger for fear is the threat of harm, real or imagined. This threat can be to our physical, emotional, or psychological well-being. While there are certain things that trigger fear in most of us, we can learn to become afraid of nearly anything [8].

The function of fear:

Fear’s function is to avoid or reduce harm. In fear, the threat of harm focuses our attention to help us cope with the danger. We can even do things we would not do in normal circumstances to protect ourselves or others from harm, reacting without thinking about it helps us act fast.

Common fear triggers:

• Darkness or loss of visibility of surroundings,

• Social interaction and/or rejection,

• Snakes, rodents, spiders, and other animals,

• Death and dying [8].

Expressions of fear

Widening the eyes, pulling back the chin, rapid breathing, and heartbeat [10].

Moods and disorders

Persistent fear can sometimes be referred to as anxiety if we feel constantly worried without knowing why. The inability to identify the trigger prevents us from being able to remove ourselves, or the actual threat, from the situation.

While anxiety is a common experience for many people, it can be considered a disorder when it is recurrent, persistent, intense, and interferes with basic life tasks such as work and sleep.

Responding to fear

There are people who avoid the feeling of fear and some who seek it out by going to escape houses or watching horror movies.

When we observe someone who is afraid, we do not need to feel their fear to help them cope. But it takes lots of compassion and sincerity to aid one who is afraid.

CONTEMPT

Contempt is a social emotion and can induce both pleasant and unpleasant feelings in a person. It is dependent on social moral norms and violations of these norms create emotions of contempt. It can exist in the form of dislike for and superiority over the actions of another person or a group of people; or just them [8]. Plutchik includes contempt emotion to be a combination of anger and disgust, it does not have levels of intensity [9].

The function of contempt:

It’s widely believed that the function of contempt is to signal a feeling of superiority, of not needing to accommodate or engage, and to assert power or status.

Common triggers of contempt:

• Violations of norms related to obeying social hierarchies [17].

Expressions of contempt

There is no specific expression of contempt. The feelings it gives can be pleasant, thus some of the joy’s expressions can be observed.

Feeling contempt

Power or status can result in feelings of contempt. People who are in high positions of legal, political, or order power can feel contempt for people who are in lower positions of theirs. The opposite is also possible when people who are in lower positions feel contempt for those in the upper levels. This is called ‘upper contempt’. Teenagers' negative feelings towards adults, workers for their bosses, or prisoners for their guards can be examples of upper contempt [8].

Contempt vs. disgust

Contempt and disgust are alike:

• They can both be directed toward people and their actions.

• Contempt includes feelings of superiority over the target,

• In disgust, aversion is the key, in contempt that is not necessary.

• Sensations of contempt do not have to be unpleasant may even feel good,
  

  • Sensations of disgust are unpleasant and may lead to severe physical responses (nausea etc.) [8].

ANTICIPATION

Anticipation is one of the emotions Plutchik included in his theory. It is about the expectations one has created or has of themselves [18]. It is the opposite emotion of surprise. Higher intensities of anticipation show interest, and lower show vigilance.

Function of anticipation:

Anticipation helps us combine information from our current state and from our past experiences to understand what might be ahead of us. This way we can prepare ourselves for future events.

Common triggers of anticipation:

• An academic or professional expectancy we have (graduating, promoting, etc.),

• Socially beneficial event (gathering with friends etc.).

Expressions of anticipation:

Being in a state of curiosity. Alert and explore the environment or the situation for information [9].

TRUST

Trust is another of Plutchik’s emotions Trust is a feeling of safety when we believe that the situation or the environment is not harmful and there is no risk of damage [18]. It is the opposite of disgust. Higher intensities of trust show admiration, and lower shows acceptance.

Function of trust:

Trust is an emotion that states one is safe. Experiencing this emotion helps the person not feel alert. In a social environment where we feel safe, it helps us connect with others, and build stronger relationships and alliances for future risks [9].

Common triggers of trust:

• Being in an accepting environment,

• No prominent risks.

Expressions of trust:

Stable heartbeat, body temperature, and a relaxed stance.

Why are emotions important?

Emotions are an important way for understanding people. One way to do this is to measure emotions, this way, we can try to maintain or change the emotion depending on its outcome.

Emotions interact with a person’s past experiences and current perceptions to create/affect a behavior. They have a strong relation to shaping behavior. Observing and regulating emotions is important at both individual and interpersonal levels in the workplace.

On the individual level, emotion regulation provides better-quality communication, enhanced physiological health and psychological well-being as well as work performance.

Interpersonal level of emotion regulation shows higher customer service quality, satisfaction, and better negotiation outcomes, positive client affect. And in more personal social environments, higher perceptions of trust with friends and colleagues [19].

References

[1] American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Emotion. APA Dictionary of Psychology

[2] Cherry, K. (2022, February 25). Emotions and types of emotional responses. Verywell Mind. Emotions and Types of Emotional Responses

[3] Cookson, L. J. (2015). Differences between feelings, emotions and desires in terms of interactive quality. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 2(7). Differences between feelings, emotions and desires in terms of interactive quality

[4] Cherry, K. (2022, August 01). What is mood?. Verywell Mind. What Is Mood?.

[5] Paul Ekman Group. (n.d.). Universal Emotions. Universal Emotions

[6] Karimova, H. (2017, December 24). The Emotion Wheel: what it is and how to use it. Positive Psychology. The Emotion Wheel: What is It and How to Use it?

[7] Karnilowicz, H. R. (n.d.). The Emotion Wheel: purpose, definition, and uses. Berkeley Well-Being Institute. The Emotion Wheel: Purpose, Definition, and Uses

[8] Ekman, P. (2022). The Ekmans' Atlas of Emotion. The Ekmans' Atlas of Emotion

[9] Six Seconds. (n.d.). Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions: exploring the Emotion Wheel. Plutchik's Wheel of Emotions: Feelings Wheel

[10] Cherry, K. (2022, December 01). The 6 types of basic emotions and their effect on human behavior. Verywell Mind. The 6 Types of Basic Emotions and Their Effect on Human Behavior

[11] Watkins, P. C., Emmons, R. A., Greaves, M. R., & Bell, J. (2017). Joy is a distinct positive emotion: assessment of joy and relationship to gratitude and well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 13(5), 522-539. Joy is a distinct positive emotion: Assessment of joy and relationship to gratitude and well-being

[12] Schrock, S. (2021, December 13). How does joy feel?. LevelHead. How Does Joy Feel? — Levelhead

[13] Parincu, Z. (n.d.). Sadness: definition, causes, & related emotions. Berkeley Well-Being Institute. Sadness: Definition, Causes, & Related Emotions

[14] American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Anger. Anger

[15] Aumann, A. G., & Cogley, Z. (2019). Forgiveness and the multiple functions of anger. Journal of Philosophy of Emotion, 1(1), 44-71. Antony G. Aumann & Zac Cogley, Forgiveness and the Multiple Functions of Anger - PhilPapers

[16] Pratt, K. (2014, February 3). Psychology tools: what is anger? A secondary emotion. HealthyPysch. Psychology Tools: What is Anger? A Secondary Emotion | HealthyPsych.com

[17] Pankov, A. (2015). The other-condemning moral emotions - a modal logic approach. [Master Thesis, Utrecht University]. UU Thesis Repository. The Other-Condemning Moral Emotions - A Modal Logic Approach

[18] WellWo. (2021, April 19). The 8 basic emotions of the Plutchik’s Wheel. Plutchik's Wheel: The 8 basic emotions | WellWo

[19] Troth, A. C., Lawrence, S. A., Jordan, P. J., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2017). Interpersonal emotion regulation in the workplace: a conceptual and operational review and future research agenda. International Journal of Management Reviews, 20(2), 523-543. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijmr.12144